Joint operation planning process

Joint operation planning process The Joint Operation Planning Process, or JOPP, supports planning at all levels and for missions across the full range of military operations. This planning process applies to both contingency planning and CAP. The JOPP is an orderly, analytical planning process that consists of a set of logical steps to analyze a mission, develop, analyze, and compare alternative COAs, or courses of action, select the best COA, and produce a plan or order. Step 1: Initiation. The Joint Operation Planning Process or JOPP begins when the President, SecDef, or CJCS recognizes a potential for military capability to be employed in response to a potential or actual crisis and initiates planning by deciding to develop military options. The GEF, JSCP, and related strategic guidance statements serve as the primary guidance to begin contingency planning. Military options normally are developed in combination with other nonmilitary options so that the President can respond with all the appropriate instruments of national power. Often in CAP, the JFC and staff will perform an assessment of the initiating directive to determine time available until mission execution, the current status of intelligence products and staff estimates, and other factors relevant to the specific planning situation. Step 2: Mission Analysis. The primary purpose of mission analysis is to understand the problem and purpose of the operation and issue appropriate guidance to drive the rest of the planning process. A primary consideration for a supported commander during mission analysis is the national strategic end state -the broadly expressed political, military, economic, social, informational, and other conditions that should exist after the conclusion of a campaign or operation. The primary inputs to mission analysis are the higher headquarters planning directive, other strategic guidance, the Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment or JIPOE, and initial staff estimates. The primary products of mission analysis are a restated mission statement and the JFCs initial intent statement, the Commanders Critical Information Requirements or CCIRs, and planning guidance. The figure below describes the key inputs and resulting outputs of mission analysis. Step 3: Course of Action (COA) Development. A COA consists of the following information: what type of military action will occur; why the action is required (purpose); who will take the action; when the action will begin; where the action will occur; and how the action will occur (method of employment of forces). A valid COA will have the characteristics outlined in the figure below. Once a valid COA is developed, the staff converts the approved COA into a CONOPS. COA determination will consist of four primary activities: COA development, analysis and wargaming, comparison, and approval. Step 4: COA Analysis and Wargaming. The commander and staff analyze each tentative COA separately according to the commanders guidance. COA analysis identifies advantages and disadvantages of each proposed friendly COA. Wargaming provides a means for the commander and participants to analyze a tentative COA, improve their understanding of the operational environment, and obtain insights that otherwise might not have occurred. Based upon time available, the commander should wargame each tentative COA against the most probable and the most dangerous adversary COAs. Step 5: COA Comparison. An objective process whereby COAs are considered independently of each other and evaluated against a set of criteria that are established by the staff and commander. The goal is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of COAs so that a COA with the highest probability of success can be selected or developed. The commander and staff develop and evaluate a list of important criteria, or governing factors, consider each COAs advantages and disadvantages, identify actions to overcome disadvantages, make final tests for feasibility and acceptability and weigh the relative merits of each. Step 6: COA Approval. The staff determines the best COA to recommend to the commander. The staff briefs the commander on the COA comparison and the analysis and wargaming results, including a review of important supporting information. This briefing often takes the form of a commanders estimate. This information could include such factors as, the current status of the joint force; the current JIPOE; and assumptions used in COA development. The commander selects a COA or forms an alternate COA based upon the staff recommendations. The nature of a potential contingency could make it difficult to determine a specific end state until the crisis actually occurs. In these cases, the JFC may choose to present two or more valid COAs for approval by higher authority. A single COA can then be approved when the crisis occurs and specific circumstances become clear. Step 7: Plan or Order Development. The commander and staff, in collaboration with subordinate and supporting components and organizations, expand the approved COA into a detailed joint operation plan or OPORD by first developing an executable CONOPS, which clearly and concisely expresses what the JFC intends to accomplish and how it will be done using available resources. It describes how the actions of the joint force components and supporting organizations will be integrated, synchronized, and phased to accomplish the mission, including potential branches and sequels. Contingency planning will result in operation plan development, while CAP typically will lead directly to OPORD development. Voice: Planning initiation begins when the President, SecDef, or CJCS recognizes a potential for military capability to be employed in response to a potential or actual crisis. The primary purpose of the next step, mission analysis, is to understand the problem and purpose of the operation and issue appropriate guidance to drive the rest of the planning process. Next, planners must develop a COA to accomplish the mission. During course of action analysis and wargaming, the commander and staff analyze each COA separately according to the commanders guidance. COA analysis identifies advantages and disadvantages of each proposed friendly COA. Wargaming provides a means for the commander and participants to analyze the COA and improve understanding of the operational environment. During COA comparison, COAs are considered independently of each other and evaluated against a set of criteria, which are established by the staff and commander. The goal is to identify the strengths and weaknes ses of COAs to select the COA with the highest probability of success. Next, the staff determines the best COA to recommend to the commander, which is normally presented in the form of a briefing for approval or further guidance. Finally, the commander and staff, in collaboration with subordinate and supporting components and organizations, expand the approved COA into a detailed joint operation plan or OPORD by first developing an executable concept of operations, or CONOPS. The CONOPS clearly and concisely expresses what the JFC intends to accomplish and how it will be done using available resources. Most often contingency planning will result in operation plan development, while CAP typically will lead directly to the development of an OPORD. Title: Contingency Planning A graphic is shown, which represents the four levels of planning detail: 1) Commanders Estimate 2) Base Plan 3) CONPLAN 4) OPLAN. The following text is shown on the right of the screen in support of the narration: Initiated by publication of the Guidance for Employment of the Force (GEF) and the Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan (JSCP) Conducted during peacetime Develops plans for a broad range of contingencies Compliments and supports other Department of Defense (DOD) planning cycles Facilitates the transition to crisis action planning (CAP) Voice: Contingency planning usually begins with the publication of a new GEF and JSCP. It is a peacetime process that develops plans for a broad range of contingencies with apportioned resources. Its performed in a continuous cycle that complements and supports other DOD planning cycles and facilitates the transition to crisis action planning, or CAP. Contingency planning is accomplished through four planning levels based on JOPES policies and guidance. Title: Contingency Planning Levels Action: On the left side of the screen is a graphic representing the the four levels of planning detail: 1) Commanders Estimate 2) Base Plan 3) CONPLAN 4) OPLAN. The following text is included as pop-up boxes to the matching components of the graphic: Level 1 Planning Detail Commanders Estimate: Focuses on producing a developed Course of Action (COA) Provides the SecDef with military COAs to meet a potential contingency Reflects the supported commanders analysis of the various COAs potential contingency Level 2 Planning Detail Base Plan: Describes the CONOPS, major forces, concepts of support, and anticipated timelines for completing the mission Normally does not include annexes or a TPFDD Level 3 Planning Detail CONPLAN: CONPLAN is an operation plan in an abbreviated format Requires expansion and alteration to convert into OPLAN or OPORD Includes a base plan with annexes, as required by the JFC and a supported commanders estimate of the plans feasibility Produces a TPFDD, if applicable Level 4 Planning Detail OPLAN: OPLAN is a complete and detailed joint plan with a full description of the CONOPS, all annexes applicable to the plan, and a TPFDD Identifies the specific forces, functional support, and resources required to execute the plan Can be quickly developed into an OPORD Voice: Contingency planning encompasses four levels of planning detail with an associated planning product for each level. Level 1 planning detail is the commanders estimate, which focuses on producing a developed COA. These military COAs enable the SecDef to meet a potential contingency. The objective of Level 2 planning detail is a base plan which describes the CONOPS, major forces, concepts of support, and the necessary timelines to complete the envisioned mission. This level normally does not include a detailed transportation feasible flow of resources into the theater. In Level 3 planning detail, the concept plan or CONPLAN is formulated, which is an operations plan in an abbreviated format. It includes annexes as required by the JFC and the supported commanders estimate of the plans overall feasibility. The CONPLAN may have an associated time-phased force and deployment data, or TPFDD, if applicable. Finally, the objective of Level 4 planning detail is a fully-developed operati on plan, or OPLAN, containing a complete and detailed joint plan with a full description of the CONOPS, all annexes required for the plan, and a TPFDD. The OPLAN identifies the specific forces, functional support, and resources required to execute the plan. The OPLAN can be quickly developed into an OPORD. Action: The following text is shown to the right of the planning level detail graphic: An OPLAN is normally prepared when: The contingency is critical to national security and requires detailed prior planning. The magnitude or timing of the contingency requires detailed planning. Detailed planning is required to support multinational planning. The feasibility of the plans CONOPS cannot be determined without detailed planning. Detailed planning is necessary to determine force deployment, employment, and sustainment requirements, determine available resources to fill identified requirements, and validate shortfalls. Voice: Furthermore, an OPLAN is normally prepared under the following circumstances: if the contingency is critical to national security and requires detailed planning; the magnitude or timing of the contingency necessitates the planning; detailed planning is required for a multinational planning effort; the feasibility of the CONOPS demands detailed planning; or if a detailed effort is necessary to determine the levels of force deployment and sustainment. Title: Crisis Action Planning Action: A series of pictures representing Crisis Action Planning is presented on screen. The following text replaces the pictures when mentioned in the narration: Contingency Planning Planning activities that occur in non-crisis situations; relies heavily on assumptions and projections Crisis Action Planning Based on facts and actual planning as a crisis unfolds Action: The series of pictures is brought back with additional images added to it and is now used as a background. Voice: Because its difficult to predict where and when a crisis will occur, planners must be able to rapidly respond to problems as they arise. Unlike contingency planning, which prepares plans in anticipation of future events, crisis action planning allows planners to respond to situations based on circumstances that exist at the time of planning. Crisis action planning procedures parallel contingency planning, but are more flexible and responsive to changing events. In time-sensitive situations, the JPEC follows formally established CAP procedures to adjust and implement previously prepared contingency plans by converting them into OPORDs or to fully develop and execute OPORDs where no useful contingency plan exists. Title: Crisis Action Planning Activities Action: In the background is a graphic representing the activities associated with crisis action planning. When mentioned in the narration, the corresponding parts are highlighted. The graphic shows a graphic labeled Event, directly under a box labeled Situational Awareness. Boxes continue in two rows, showing a linear sequence connected by arrows in a zigzag pattern. An arrow labeled OPREP-3 PCA points from Situational Awareness to Decision. An arrow covered by a document labeled Warning Order points to COA Development. An arrow labeled Commanders Estimate points from COA Development to COA Selection. An arrow covered by a document labeled Planning or Alert Order points from COA Selection to Detailed Planning. An arrow labeled Operations Order points from Detailed Planning to Plan Approval. An arrow covered by a document labeled Execute Order points from Plan Approval to Execution. Graphic bands at the top divide the graphic into three portions. Situational Awareness stretches across the entire screen, lasting throughout the process. Planning covers COA Development, COA Selection, Detailed Planning, Plan Approval, and Execution and the intermediary products. Two arrows across the bottom, labeled Prepare to Deploy Order and Deployment Order, extend across the same region as the Planning band. A band labeled Execution extends from near the end of Plan Approval through the Execution activity. Voice: CAP activities are similar to contingency planning activities; however, CAP is based on dynamic, real-world conditions rather than assumptions. CAP procedures provide for the rapid and effective exchange of information and analysis, the timely preparation of military COAs for consideration by the President or SecDef, and the prompt transmission of their decisions to the JPEC. The exact flow of the procedures is largely determined by the time available to complete the planning and by the significance of the crisis. The following steps summarize the activities and interaction that occur during CAP. When the President, SecDef, or CJCS decide to develop military options, the CJCS issues a planning directive to the JPEC initiating the development of COAs. Next, a WARNORD is issued that describes the situation, establishes command relationships, and identifies the mission and any planning constraints. In response to the WARNORD, the supported commander, in collaboration with subordinate and supporting commanders and the rest of the JPEC, reviews existing joint OPLANs for applicability and develops, analyzes, and compares COAs. Next, the feasibility that existing OPLANs can be modified to fit the specific situation is determined. The CJCS then reviews and evaluates the supported commanders estimate and recommends a COA selection. On receiving the decision of the President or SecDef, the CJCS issues an Alert Order to the JPEC to announce the decision. The supported commander then develops the OPORD and supporting TPFDD using the approved COA. The supported commander then submits the completed OPORD for approval to the SecDef or President via the CJCS. Finally, in CAP, plan development continues after the President or SecDef decides to execute the OPORD or to return to the pre-crisis situation. Title: Campaign Planning Action: The following bullet point list and quote from Joint Publication 5-0 are shown on screen, along with a picture representing campaign planning, in support of the narration: May begin during contingency planning and continue through CAP Primary way combatant commanders achieve unity of effort and guide planning of joint operations Operationalize combatant commander theater and functional strategies and integrate steady-state-activities, including current operations and security cooperation activities Require the broadest strategic concepts of operation and sustainment for achieving multinational, national, and theater-strategic objectives A campaign plan describes how a series of joint major operations are arranged in time, space, and purpose to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Joint Pub 5-0 Voice: It is important to note how campaign planning relates to the two categories of joint operation planning. Joint operation planning and planning for a campaign are not separate planning types or processes. Campaign planning may begin during contingency planning and continue through CAP, thus unifying the entire process. A campaign plan describes how a series of joint major operations are arranged in time, space, and purpose to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Campaign planning is a primary means by which combatant commanders arrange for strategic unity of effort and through which they guide the planning of joint operations within their theater. Campaign plans operationalize combatant commander theater and functional strategies and integrate steady-state-activities, including current operations as well as security cooperation activities. They require the broadest strategic concepts of operation and sustainment for achieving multinational, national, and theater-strategic objectives. Title: Types of Campaigns Action: Background image shows combatant command AOR map of the world. The following text is shown to support of the narration: Global Campaign Encompasses strategic objectives on multiple AORs. More than one supported GCC possible and competing requirements for transportation, ISR assets, and specialized units and equipment. The Global War on Terrorism is an example of a global campaign. Theater Campaign Focuses on activities of a supported combatant commander. Accomplishes strategic or operational objectives within a theater of war or theater of operations. Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM comprised a theater campaign in the 1990-91 Persian Gulf Conflict. Subordinate Campaign Describes the actions of a subordinate JFC, which accomplish (or contribute to the accomplishment of) strategic or operational objectives in support of a global or theater campaign. Subordinate JFCs develop subordinate campaign plans Voice: There are three general types of campaigns, which differ generally in scope. A global campaign is one that requires the accomplishment of strategic objectives in joint operations in multiple areas of responsibility ,or AORs. In this case, there could be more than one supported geographic combatant commander, or GCC. Planners must be aware of competing requirements for potentially scarce strategic resources, such as transportation and ISR assets, as well as specialized and unique units and equipment, such as special operations and tankers. Global campaigns will often establish the strategic and operational framework within which theater and subordinate campaigns are developed. The Global War on Terrorism is an example of a campaign that spans all AORs. A theater campaign encompasses the activities of a supported combatant commander. It accomplishes strategic or operational objectives within a theater of war or theater of operations, primarily within the supported commanders AOR. An OPLAN for a theater campaign is the operational extension of a commanders theater strategy, and translates theater strategic concepts into unified action. Adjacent combatant commanders may conduct supporting operations, within the AOR of the supported commander or within their own AORs, under the overall direction of the supported commander. Operations DESERT SHIELD and DESERT STORM comprised a theater campaign in the 1990-91 Persian Gulf Conflict. A subordinate campaign describes the actions of a subordinate JFC, which accomplish, or contribute to the accomplishment of, strategic or operational objectives in support of a global or theater campaign. Subordinate JFCs develop subordinate campaign plans, if their assigned missions require military operations of substantial size, complexity, and duration and cannot be accomplished within the framework of a single major joint operation. Subordinate campaign plans should be consistent with the strategic and operational guidance and direction developed by the supported JFC. Title: Campaign Plan Design Action: A collage of images representing Campaign Planning are shown on screen. The following text is shown in support of the narration: Mostly art, not science-no best way to develop campaign plans Requires thinking creatively to make best use of resources to achieve objectives Involves Operational Art-the employment of military forces to attain strategic and/or operational objectives through the design, organization, integration, and conduct of strategies, campaigns, major operations, and battles Voice: Campaign planning is relatively unstructured compared to contingency and crisis action planning. Campaign planning is mostly an art, not a science; there is no set recipe or best way to develop a campaign plan. It requires a thorough knowledge of enemy and friendly capabilities, forces, and tactics, as well as out-of-the-box thinking and creativity in order to make the best use of resources to achieve the desired objectives. Because campaign planning is mostly art, it is inextricably linked with operational art, most notably in the design of the operational concept for the campaign. Operational art refers to the employment of military forces to attain strategic and/or operational objectives through the design, organization, integration, and conduct of strategies, campaigns, major operations, and battles. This is primarily an intellectual exercise based on experience and judgment. Action: A diagram is show to represent the three key elements of operational design in the following narration. The diagram shows: understand the strategic guidance, bracketing the first and second levels of the diagram, which are national strategic objectives with conditions (effects) branched underneath; next level is identify critical factors which brackets level three in the diagram, centers of gravity; finally, develop an operational concept is the last section bracketing actions under the centers of gravity boxes. Voice: There are three key elements of operational design. First, planners must understand the strategic guidance from the civilian leadership. This involves determining what the desired end state is and what has to be accomplished militarily to get there. Once planners understand what military conditions must exist to achieve strategic objectives, they must determine how to effect those conditions. The key to this is identifying the adversarys critical factors-their strengths and points of vulnerability, called Centers of Gravity (COGs). Finally, the planner must develop an operational concept, which describes the sequence of actions and the application of forces and capabilities necessary to neutralize or destroy the enemys COGs. Title: Joint Air Estimate Action: On the right of the screen, operational airpower images are shown. The following text and footer are shown on the left of the screen in support of the narration: Culminates with the production of the Joint Air and Space Operations Plan (JAOP) May be employed to support deliberate and crisis action planning The Joint Air and Space Operations Plan (JAOP) guides the employment of air and space capabilities and forces from joint force components to accomplish the missions assigned by the Joint Force Commander (JFC) Voice: Weve discussed joint operation planning in a very general sense, but how does the Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC) fulfill his specific responsibility to develop the air and space portion of the Joint Force Commanders (JFCs) campaign plan? The Joint Air Estimate Process is a six-phase process that culminates with the production of the Joint Air and Space Operations Plan (JAOP). The JAOP is the JFACCs plan for integrating and coordinating joint air and space operations. It guides the employment of air and space capabilities and forces from joint force components to accomplish the missions assigned by the JFC. A Joint Air Estimate Process may be employed during contingency planning to produce JAOPs that support Operation Plans (OPLANs) or Concept Plans (CONPLANs). It may also be used during crisis action planning in concert with other theater operation planning. Title: Joint Air Estimate Process Action: The following text is shown in support of the narration: Mission Analysis Joint Intelligence Preparation of the Operational Environment (JIPOE) is initiated; JFCs mission and guidance analyzed Situation and Course of Action Development JIPOE refined; Friendly and adversary COGs are analyzed to assist in COA preparation Course of Action Analysis Advantages and disadvantages of each COA are identified Course of Action Comparison COAs are compared to predetermined criteria to identify best employment options Course of Action Selection Staff briefs recommended COA to JFACC Joint Air Space Operations Plan (JAOP) Development Selected COA developed into JAOP Action: A link to Joint Publication 3-30 is provided at the bottom of the page. Each of the bold text above are linked to the following pop-up text: Mission Analysis: Mission analysis is critical to ensure thorough understanding of the task and subsequent planning. It results in the Joint Force Air Component Commanders (JFACCs) mission statement that includes the who, what, when, where and why for the joint air operation. Anticipation, prior preparation, and a trained staff are critical to a timely mission analysis. Staff estimates generated during mission analysis are continually revisited and updated during the course of planning and execution. Situation and Course of Action (COA) Development The first two tasks of situation and course of action (COA) development are expanding and refining the initial JIPOE completed in Phase I and COG analysis. Expanded JIPOE is essential to developing and analyzing both enemy and friendly COGs. This is especially critical for air and space planning given the perspective and scope of air and space operations. The third task is the development of friendly COAs. Air and space planners develop alternative COAs by varying the ends, ways, means, and risks. The operational objectives normally fill the what guidance for COA development; the supporting tactical objectives, effects, and tasks help define the how for planners. Once planners define the objectives and supporting effects, they further refine potential air and space COAs based on the priority, sequence, phasing, weight of effort, matched resources, and assessment criteria. The result of COA development is a minimum of two valid COAs or a single valid COA with significant branches or s equels. The final step is a risk analysis of the COA in terms of both operations and combat support Course of Action (COA) Analysis COA analysis involves wargaming each COA against the adversarys most likely and most dangerous COAs. Wargaming is a recorded what if session of actions and reactions designed to visualize the flow of the battle and evaluate each friendly COA. Wargaming is a valuable step in the estimate process because it stimulates ideas and provides insights that might not otherwise be discovered. Course of Action (COA) Comparison Comparing the COAs against predetermined criteria provides an analytical method to identify the best employment options for air forces/capabilities. This begins with the JFACC staff comparing the proposed COAs and identifying the strengths, weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages of each. This is often followed by rating each COA based upon the established criteria. Course of Action (COA) Selection COA selection begins when the staff presents their recommended COA (usually in the form of a briefing) to the JFACC. This briefing includes a summary of the estimate process that led to the recommended COA. Based on the amount of JFACC involvement throughout the planning process and the degree of parallel planning the commander accomplishes, COA selection will vary from choosing among alternatives to direct approval of the staff-recommended COA. Joint Air Operations Plan (JAOP) Development The JAOP details how the joint air effort will support the JFCs overall Operation Plan (OPLAN). The JAOP accomplishes the following: integrates the efforts of joint air and space capabilities and forces; identifies objectives and tasks; identifies measures or indicators of success; accounts for current and potential adversary COAs; synchronizes the phasing of air and space operations with the JFCs plan; indicates what air and space capabilities and forces are required to achieve the objectives. Voice: While the phases of the Joint Air Estimate process are presented in sequential order, work on them can be either concurrent or sequential. The phases are integrated and the products of each phase are checked and verified for coherence. The Process begins with Mission Analysis. This first phase incorporates: a

America’s Involvement In the Spanish-American War Essay

In the late 19th century the United States began to dramatically reshape their foreign policies, and they soon found themselves in a bloody war that would shape the future of the country for years to come. When the United States was first created George Washington recommended limited foreign involvement, this all changed in 1823 with the Monroe Doctrine. This document set out the entire western hemisphere as the United States sphere of influence. However, at the time the Unites States did not have the power or the navy to back up this demand, until the late 1880’s when support for imperialism began to take off. People began to support imperialism because all other great powers had empires, strategic objectives became important, expanding the foreign market would support the economy, and social Darwinism was applied to nations, which meant that only the countries with the greatest wealth and largest empires would survive. As the 19th century came to a close, the United States saw an opportunity to put the Monroe Doctrine and a new sense of imperialism into action. At the time, Cuba was under going serious change, and was in the middle of a civil war with Spain. In 1895 a war escalated in Cuba to the point that 500, 000 Cubans were put into camps because of the reconcentracion policy.1 This policy had disastrous consequences causing nearly 200, 000 people in the camps to die because of the lack of proper food, sanitary conditions, and medical care.2 The policy generated severe anti-Spanish sentiment in the United States. As anger continued to rise among the American people, short-tempers eventually shattered into a gruesome war. The United States’ own President McKinley said that he â€Å"had no desire to go to war with Spain†, thus one must ask what were the overwhelming factors that pushed the American nation into another war?3 Historians have suggested numerous reasons for the United States to enter into war. Many authors, such as Ivan Musicant4 and Frank Friedel5, believe the Yellow Press and their extraordinary stories pushed the American public to their limits, forcing the McKinley administration to finally intervene in Cuba. However, writers such as Wayne Morgan suggested that the United States pursued a peaceful policy toward Cuba, attempting to force Spain to reform the island, but the Spanish failure to do so provoked American intervention.6 The overwhelming causes of the Spanish-American War can be attributed to a combination of five factors listed in order of importance. The Yellow Press, American economic interests, McKinley’s political agenda, and the sinking of the Maine. With these four factors in mind, the American motives for war will be accurately examined. When the American people saw an opportunity to make money by investing in Cuba’s sugar plantations, they immediately took advantage of the opportunity. However, once they saw their economic interests were endangered by the civil war in Cuba, American people wanted to protect their valuable investments. One of the main reasons Cuban Nationalists revolted against Spain was because they thought the U.S. would likely come to their aid. They had good reason to think this because at the time the United States was investing increasing amounts of money into Cuban sugar production, $50 million by 1895 and conducted trade with Cuba worth $100 million annually. The United States also had a strangle hold on the Cuban economy with 87% of all Cuban exports going to the United States in 1890.7 This newly found American-Cuban relationship also had its negative sides; it brought with it an increasing concentration on sugar production. As the Cuban revolution continued, more and more sugar plantations were being destroyed, disrupting trade, and seriously hurting the American investments. Not only would Americans be able to protect these investments if they went to war, but they would be able to acquire other Spanish colonies, for example the Philippines, and expand their foreign market. As Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge said, â€Å"Free Cuba would mean a great market for the United States; it would mean an opportunity for American capital; it would mean an opportunity for development of that splendid island.†8 Freeing the rebellious nation would not only protect the withstanding American investments, but would also allow Americans to spread their influence around the Caribbean nations and capture the foreign market. America’s future as an industrial power depended on foreign markets for American products. One of the major causes of the Spanish-American War was the American public opinion, which was extremely negative towards the Spaniards. The articles written by the Yellow Press drastically swayed this public opinion. The Yellow Press was a newspaper war in New York City between William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. These writers sensationalized the news and often exaggerated the truth and provoked a demand for intervention in Cuba. The American public used these newspapers as their information center for all events that were occurring in Cuba. Hearst and Pulitzer were able to greatly benefit from influencing Americans, increasing their readership from 400, 000 in 1897, to over 1 million readers during the Spanish-American War in 1898.9 Whatever Hearst or Pulitzer had to say was accepted by Americans without thought to the information’s validity. A good example of the Hearst’s Journal exaggerating the truth is an article on the Spanish General Weyler, â€Å"There is nothing to prevent his carnal animal brain from running riot with itself in inventing tortures and infamies of blood debauchery†.10 Biased information like this would be handed to the American public day after day, forcing the people to believe that the situation in Cuba required intervention. On February 8, 1898, Hearst once again added fuel to the fire with the publishing of the de Là ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½me letter. The Spanish Ambassador wrote the letter, which was published in the Journal, to a friend, in which the diplomat called U.S. President William McKinley â€Å"†¦ a weak man and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd†¦besides being a common politician†¦Ã¢â‚¬ .11 The letter enraged the American and drove them â€Å"to a new level of hysteria†.12 Although the letter did not have major economical or political impact, besides on McKinley’s ego, the social implications were enormous. Hearst and Pulitzer were not the only people who wrote about the conditions in Cuba, there was also E.L. Godkin who was the editor of the weekly Nation. Godkin frequently spoke out against Hearst and Pulitzer accusing them of gross misrepresentation, deliberate invention and unnecessary recklessness. He said â€Å"They were firebrands, tossed into the American crowd in an attempt to ignite a war.†13 No matter how much Godkin spoke out against Hearst and Pulitzer, they continued to dominate the American public with their embellished stories and pro war slants. The American public’s humanitarian concerns came into play after reading these articles. They soon believed how terrible the Cuban conditions were and began to plead the government to take aggressive steps towards Cuban independence. When the U.S. naval ship, the Maine, exploded in Havana Harbor, the American people, and their government were confused about what had happened and who had done it. Many fingers began to point at Spain, but even if Spain had not committed the crime, the suspicion alone by the American people was enough to push the war envelope a bit further. One of the final peaceful solutions to the problems in Cuba, presented by McKinley, was autonomy. This granted the country the right of self-government, however, a large portion of the Cuban population opposed autonomy and soon riots broke out. The battleship Maine simply arrived in Havana for a â€Å"friendly visit† on January 25, 1898 in response to pro-Spanish mobs.14 Suddenly, on the evening of February 15, 1898, at 9:45 PM, the Maine blew up, killing 268 of the crew.15 The explosion was an enormous blow not only to the American people, but to the Spanish and Cuban people as well. Immediately Madrid authorities as well as McKinley want ed to know what had happened and began thorough investigations. On March 21 the U.S. court determined there were two explosions: the first was of a mine under the keel of the Maine, and the second touched off by the initial blast.16 The court however did not fix responsibility for planting the mine. The Spanish board of inquiry, however, had a contrary conclusion, which said that the blast had been sparked by spontaneous combustion of coal.17 The American people were not told about the contrary deductions, but instead were heavily influenced by the Yellow Press who placed the fault of the incident solely on the Spaniards. The public was up in flames and was in agreement that the U.S. would get their revenge on Spain for taking American lives. The Maine explosion, combined with the anti-autonomy riots in Havana effectively changed the American public’s demands from Cuban autonomy to complete independence, which could only be achieved through war. When McKinley was inaugurated as president in 1896 his main political goals were to improve the United States economy and avoid war at all costs. However, McKinley found himself in a tough situation weighing peace against winning the upcoming 1900 election and the strategic benefits of acquiring Cuba. As McKinley was well aware of, the Yellow Press had misconstrued the situation in Cuba, causing the majority of the American population to become eager for war. If McKinley expected to win the upcoming election, he would have to give in to the people’s demands. McKinley also saw the beneficial strategic implications if the U.S. were to acquire Cuba and the Philippines through war. The United States would gain massive sea power by setting up naval bases, and Cuba would be the key to the future security of a U.S. canal in the Caribbean. With this political agenda in McKinley’s mind, he came up with two peaceful courses of action before he would have to declare war. McKinley’s first course of action was a proposal to buy Cuba for $30 million, but Spain quickly rejected this offer.18 Next, on March 29, 1898, Ambassador Stewart Woodford presented the final United States proposal on Cuba, requiring Spain to abandon the reconcentracion policy, proclaim an immediate armistice, and finally accede to Cuba’s independence.19 The Spanish government offered to withdraw the reconcentracion policy and to grant a cease-fire at the insurgents’ request, but refused to grant Cuba its independence.20 The American people were furious with the news, but McKinley, following through with his ultimatum asking Congress, on April 11, 1898, for permission to intervene directly in Cuba. The request was passed once the Teller Amendment, an agreement made disclaiming any intention of annexing Cuba, was adopted.21 The United States had finally entered a war that McKinley had feared, while the American people had been pushing for it all along. There were many factors that created the atmosphere necessary for the Spanish-American War to occur. No one event in itself was enough. But rather, it was the culmination of a sequence of events that created an atmosphere leading to war. The contributing factors that led to the Spanish-American War were economic interests, McKinley’s political agenda, and the sinking of the Maine. The major factor that eventually pushed the United States into war was the Yellow Press and its influence on the American people. The Yellow Press conveyed the facts to the American people in a negative manner, prompting the American people to plead for Cuban intervention through any means necessary. However, historian Wayne Morgan suggests, â€Å"war would have come without the Yellow Press†. 22 Once the nine-month war had ended, with only three months of fighting, the war concluded with the Treaty of Paris, 1898. This treaty gave the United States the colonies of Guam and Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines in return for $20 million.23 Although the Cubans did receive independence from Spain, in 1902 the U.S. created the Platt Amendment, which put Cuban foreign policy under U.S. control and all Cuban economic decisions under subject to U.S. approval.24 Life for Cubans was better, but they still did not have complete independence. Because the United States received the new colonies from Spain, they began to accomplish their imperialistic goals, and increase their national status to compete with the other world powers. President McKinley had tried his best to avoid a war, but the American public left him no choice, nevertheless McKinley succeeded in winning the 1900 elections.25 The Spanish-American War provided the United States with both opportunities and challenges. In 1899, when the United States occupied its new empire, Assistant Secretary of State John Basset Moore observed that the nation had become â€Å"a world power†¦Where formerly we had only commercial interests, we now have territorial and political interests as well.† 26 1 Michael Golay, America At War: The Spanish-American War. (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1995), 5. 2 The Spanish American War, 1898, [May 2, 2007]. 3 Golay, America At War, 13. 4 Ivan Musicant, Empire By Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century. (New York: Henry and Company, Inc., 1998), 81-83. 5 Frank Burt Freidel, The Splendid Little War. (Toronto: Little, Brown and Company Limited, 1958), 5-8. 6 Wayne Morgan, America’s Road To Empire: The War With Spain and Overseas Expansion. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968), ix-x. 7 The Spanish American War, [May 2, 2007]. 8 Golay, America At War, 14. 9 The Spanish American War, [May 2, 2007]. 10 Golay, America At War, 7. 11 Irving Werstein, 1898: The Spanish-American War. (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1966) 10. 12 Musicant, Empire By Default, 152. 13 Golay, America At War, 12. 14 Freidel, The Splendid Little War, 8. 15 Albert Nofi, The Spanish-American War, 1898. (Conshohocken: Combined Books, Inc. 1996), 42 16 Nofi, The Spanish-American War, 43. 17 Causes of the Spanish American War. [May 2, 2007]. 18 Causes of the Spanish American War, [May 2, 2007]. 19 Nofi, The Spanish-American War, 44. 20 The Spanish American War, [May 2, 2007]. 21 David Goldfield et al, The American Journey: A History of The United States. (Toronto: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., 2002), 427. 22 Morgan, America’s Road To Empire, 14. 23 The Spanish American War, [May 2, 2007]. 24 Goldfield, The American Journey, 430. 25 Goldfield, The American Journey, Appendix A-15 26 Goldfield, The American Journey, 427.

The Nuiances of Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics

The Nuiances of Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics New Questions About Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics To convince someone about your point of views isn't a simple skill to acquire. This kind of essay requires a good framework and exemplary support. It is very important to check reviews about essay writing services in order to be confident they can deliver your task before the deadline. Remember you ought to have some understanding of the topic you're writing about. The New Angle On Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics Just Released Your introductory paragraph ought to be clear and concise just enjoy the example. An argumentative essay is a sort of essay that presents arguments about each side of a problem. An argumentative essays purpose is to convince your reader to hold up your side of the argument. Any superior task finishes with a terrific conclusion and the very best examples of the argumentative essay will arrive in with a conclusion which ha s an overview of all of the points together with a gist of the evidences provided. The Good, the Bad and Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics Nevertheless, before you begin devising your arguments, you will need to take into account several facets. If you're writing an argumentative essay it's important that you write on a topic that you have knowledge about and you believe that it is possible to win over the audience with your arguments. All you have to do here is to reiterate some ideas and provide a general conclusive assertion. You're going to need to choose a topic first, but your topic needs to be something that has two conflicting points or various conclusions. The Upside to Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics Whether it's an argumentative or expository essay which you are writing, it is crucial to develop a clear thesis statement and a crystal clear sound reasoning. Mind a thesis proposal as a distinct assignment is a lengthy, doctoral-level project. It is essential that the thesis statement needs to be slimmed down to be able to adhere to the guidelines of the given writing exercise. The matter here is that it takes so many parts of paper to write just a single textbook. The Appeal of Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics If you are feeling unsure at any stage, you should decide on affordable essay writing services readily available online instead of risking for any error. Look through the list of topics with care and commence making a mental collection of the evidence it's possible to use on topics you want. Should you need additional assistance with editing and revising, there are a few free tools readily available online. Be certain to read online essay writing service reviews in order to know what sort of material you are spending for. How to Choose Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics The primary reason why somebody is writing an argumentative essay is to try to persuade or sway another man or woman or perha ps a group of men and women in your rightness in a particular theme. The amount of people pointing out to the several explanations for why marijuana ought to be legal is growing daily. To be fair, however, you are going to find that one of the very first things you have to do is become a specialist on the problem. If you really need to get folks to find things your way, you will need to convince them with evidence and facts. If you're new to writing argumentative essays, there are a couple of crucial factors which you can learn that may help you compose a greater argumentative essay. Before writing an argumentative essay, there's one important thing which you should know. The upcoming few paragraphs will compose most of your essay. The very first sentence of the essay has to be interesting enough to produce the reader read on. It's essential that the whole essay relate to the main subject, so make sure you don't stray from the home point of your essay. If you're allowed to select from several topics for your essay, consider choosing the one which you know. In order to supply an in-depth understanding about the argumentative essay, it is best to examine some of the greatest examples of argumentative essay. Then you ought to endeavour to select the right argumentative essay format. Check with our argumentative essay example at a better understanding. Every argumentative essay ought to depend on a topic that may be debated. Writing an argumentative essay can at times be confusing since you don't necessarily understand how to compose a convincing argument. The Good, the Bad and Greek Mythology Argumentative Essay Topics Your essay should consist of recent statistics and data from reliable sources. An argumentative essay purpose is to take one specific viewpoint out of the rest of the viewpoints. You may examine the further info on the best way to compose an eye-catching essay introduction with a hook. Tie every claim you make to a bit of evidence to make sure the ideal essay possible.

Essay on A Call for Uniforms at PenArgyl High School

As stated in the Morning Call on January 11, 2013, â€Å"Uniforms will reduce bullying, teasing and disruption while also being a cheaper alternative for poor parents who struggle every year to afford new school clothes for their children†(Esack). Much like the Allentown Area School District, incorporating uniforms needs to be a priority for Pen Argyl High School. Not only will students have better attendance once uniforms are required, but one can also expect school achievement to increase. The enacting of a uniform rule by the Pen Argyl School District geared towards the high school would halt bullying in our school, eliminate questionable dress code violations, and make all students and personnel easily identifiable when present in the high†¦show more content†¦Overall, if uniform wearing was an required component of Pen Argyl High School, student priorities would be focused on the more appropriate topic of academics rather than the fad of fashion trends; leading t o more student awareness and less bullying, or attention to student clothing, throughout the school day. In addition to the apparent bullying over style trends and choices, another issue that could be eliminated through the incorporation of uniforms is the lessening of disciplinary action directed towards students for dress code violations. Almost daily, students are sent to the office for dress code checks which are most often handled by the Vice Principal. Students are commonly sent for checks based on the following items that are considered questionable: midriff revealing tops, ripped and low-rise jeans, short skirts and shorts, exposed shoulders and necklines and spandex for the girls. Then there are ill-fitting jeans and inappropriate slogans on t-shirts and sweatshirts for the boys. A uniform policy would eliminate the need for dress code checks, which would enable the vice principal to concentrate on more important issues within the high school. Not only would uniforms eli minate this disciplinary issue of student dress, but the incorporation of a uniform policy would better prepare students